E-commerce Law Briefing

E-commerce law is a critical and highly complex area of legal regulation that governs electronic trading, encompassing both online and offline transactions. While it primarily focuses on online trading, its scope extends to various aspects of digital commerce, ensuring fair practices, consumer protection, and legal compliance. In the UK, the foundation of e-commerce law is rooted in the Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002, which implement the European Union’s Directive 2000/31/EC. These regulations are a cornerstone of online business operations, shaping how businesses interact with consumers and other businesses in the digital marketplace.

However, e-commerce law is not limited to the 2002 Regulations. It intersects with broader legal frameworks, including contract law, consumer protection laws, and data privacy regulations. This briefing provides an in-depth exploration of e-commerce law, its key components, and its implications for businesses and consumers.

The Foundation of E-Commerce Law: The 2002 Regulations

The Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 were introduced to harmonise e-commerce laws across the European Union, ensuring a consistent legal framework for online businesses operating in the internal market. These regulations apply to businesses that provide “information society services,” which include any service normally provided for remuneration, at a distance, by electronic means, and at the individual request of a recipient. Examples include online retail, streaming services, and digital marketplaces.

Key provisions of the 2002 Regulations include:

• Transparency Requirements:
  Businesses must provide clear and comprehensive information to consumers, including their contact details, terms and conditions, and pricing.
• Acknowledgment of Orders:
  Online businesses must acknowledge receipt of orders without undue delay. 
• Commercial Communications:
  Any form of online advertising or promotion must be clearly identifiable as such.
• Liability of Intermediaries:
  Service providers, such as internet service providers (ISPs) and hosting platforms, are granted limited liability for content transmitted or stored on their networks, provided they act as mere conduits.

These regulations aim to build trust in online transactions by ensuring transparency and accountability. For example, an online retailer must clearly display its returns policy and delivery costs before a customer completes a purchase. Failure to comply with these requirements can result in legal penalties and reputational damage.

Contract Law and E-Commerce

While the 2002 Regulations provide a framework for online trading, the English law of contract remains the backbone of e-commerce transactions. Contract law governs the formation, validity, and enforcement of agreements, whether conducted online or offline. Key principles, such as offer, acceptance, consideration, and intention to create legal relations, apply equally to digital contracts.

For instance, when a customer clicks “Buy Now” on an e-commerce website, they are accepting an offer made by the seller, forming a legally binding contract. However, the digital nature of e-commerce introduces unique challenges, such as ensuring that terms and conditions are easily accessible and understood by consumers. The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 play a crucial role in protecting consumers from unfair or overly burdensome terms imposed by businesses.

An example of contract law in action is the case of Patel v. Mirza (2016), where the UK Supreme Court clarified the principles of illegality in contract law. While not specific to e-commerce, this case underscores the importance of ensuring that online contracts are lawful and enforceable. 

Consumer Protection in E-Commerce

Consumer protection is a fundamental aspect of e-commerce law, ensuring that consumers are treated fairly and transparently in online transactions. As e-commerce continues to grow, the need for robust legal frameworks to safeguard consumer rights has become increasingly important. E-commerce law addresses various issues, including misleading advertising, unfair contract terms, data privacy, and dispute resolution, to create a trustworthy digital marketplace.

This section delves into the key principles, regulations, and mechanisms of consumer protection in e-commerce, with a focus on how e-commerce law ensures fairness and accountability in online transactions.

1. The Importance of Consumer Protection in E-Commerce
   E-commerce offers convenience and accessibility, but it also presents unique challenges for consumers, such as:
   • Lack of Physical Interaction:
     Consumers cannot inspect products before purchasing.Data Privacy Risks:
     Online transactions involve sharing personal and financial information.Cross-Border Complexity:
     Consumers may face difficulties in resolving disputes with foreign sellers.E-commerce law addresses these challenges by establishing clear rules and standards for businesses, ensuring that consumers are protected from unfair practices and have access to effective remedies.
2. Key Principles of Consumer Protection in E-Commerce Law
   E-commerce law is built on several core principles that guide consumer protection:
   1. Transparency
      Businesses must provide clear and accurate information about their products, services, and terms of sale. This includes:
      • Product descriptions and pricing.
      • Delivery times and costs.
      • Return and refund policies.
   2. Fairness
      E-commerce law prohibits unfair practices, such as:
      • Misleading advertising.
      • Hidden fees or charges.
      • Unfair contract terms.
   3. Accountability
      Businesses are held accountable for their actions and must comply with legal requirements. This includes:
      • Protecting consumer data.
      • Honouring warranties and guarantees.
      • Resolving disputes promptly and fairly.
3. Key Regulations in E-Commerce Law
   Several regulations and directives form the backbone of consumer protection in e-commerce law:
   1. Consumer Rights Act 2015 (UK)
      This legislation consolidates and strengthens consumer rights, including:
      • The right to return faulty goods within 30 days.
      • The right to a repair, replacement, or refund for defective products.
      • Protections against unfair contract terms.
   2. Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation, and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013
      These regulations apply to distance and online sales, requiring businesses to:
      • Provide clear pre-contractual information.
      • Allow consumers to cancel orders within 14 days (cooling-off period).
      • Refund payments within 14 days of cancellation.
   3. Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002
      These regulations govern online business practices, including:
      • Transparency requirements for commercial communications.
      • Acknowledgment of orders.
      • Liability of intermediaries (e.g., ISPs and hosting platforms).
   4. General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
      The GDPR protects consumers’ personal data by requiring businesses to:
      • Obtain explicit consent for data collection.
      • Implement robust security measures.
      • Notify consumers of data breaches.
4. Consumer Rights in E-Commerce
   E-commerce law grants consumers specific rights to ensure fair treatment in online transactions:
   1. Right to Information
      Consumers have the right to clear and accurate information about:
      • The identity of the seller.
      • Product features and pricing.
      • Terms and conditions of sale.
   2. Right to Cancel
      Consumers can cancel distance contracts within 14 days without providing a reason. This cooling-off period allows consumers to change their minds after purchasing.
   3. Right to Refund
      If a product is faulty, not as described, or not delivered, consumers are entitled to a full refund. Businesses must process refunds within 14 days of receiving the returned goods.
   4. Right to Data Privacy
      Consumers have the right to control how their personal data is collected, used, and stored. Businesses must comply with data protection laws, such as GDPR.
5. Mechanisms for Enforcing Consumer Rights
   E-commerce law provides various mechanisms to enforce consumer rights and resolve disputes:
   1. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
      ADR methods, such as mediation and arbitration, offer faster and cheaper alternatives to litigation. The EU Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) Platform facilitates cross-border disputes within the EU.
   2. Chargebacks
      Consumers can dispute unauthorised or fraudulent transactions with their payment provider (e.g., credit card company) and request a refund.
   3. Small Claims Court
      For low-value disputes, consumers can use small claims courts to seek redress. In the UK, the Money Claim Online (MCOL) service simplifies the process for claims up to £100,000.
   4. Regulatory Authorities
      Regulatory bodies, such as the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) in the UK, enforce consumer protection laws and take action against businesses that violate them.
6. Challenges in Consumer Protection
   Despite the robust legal frameworks, several challenges persist in consumer protection in e-commerce:
   1. Cross-Border Transactions
      Consumers may face difficulties in resolving disputes with foreign sellers due to different legal systems and enforcement mechanisms.
   2. Enforcement of Decisions
      Ensuring that businesses comply with dispute resolution decisions, particularly in cross-border cases, can be challenging.
   3. Consumer Awareness
      Many consumers are unaware of their rights or the mechanisms available to enforce them, highlighting the need for better education and outreach.
7. Best Practices for Businesses
   To comply with e-commerce law and protect consumer rights, businesses should:
   • Provide Clear Information: Ensure that product descriptions, pricing, and terms of sale are accurate and transparent.
   • Implement Robust Data Protection Measures: Safeguard consumer data and comply with GDPR requirements.
   • Offer Excellent Customer Service: Resolve issues promptly and fairly to build trust and loyalty.
   • Stay Informed: Keep up-to-date with changes in e-commerce law and consumer protection regulations.
8. Mini Case Studies in Consumer Protection
   • Amazon’s A-to-Z Guarantee
     Amazon’s guarantee protects consumers by offering refunds for items that are not delivered or are significantly different from their description. This policy demonstrates how e-commerce platforms can enhance consumer trust through robust dispute resolution mechanisms.
   • GDPR Enforcement
     In 2020, British Airways was fined £20 million for a data breach that exposed the personal information of over 400,000 customers. This case highlights the importance of data protection in e-commerce law and the consequences of non-compliance.

The Role of Intellectual Property in E-Commerce

Intellectual property (IP) rights are another critical aspect of e-commerce law. Online businesses must navigate a complex web of IP regulations to protect their own assets and avoid infringing on the rights of others. Key areas of concern include:

1. Trademarks:
   Trademarks protect brand names, logos, and slogans. In e-commerce, where competition is fierce, protecting a brand’s identity is crucial. For example, Amazon’s Brand Registry programme helps sellers protect their trademarks and combat counterfeit goods on the platform.
2. Copyrights:
   Copyright law protects original works such as images, videos, and written content. E-commerce businesses must ensure that they have the right to use any content displayed on their websites. A common issue is the unauthorised use of product images or descriptions, which can lead to legal disputes.
3. Patents:
   While less common in traditional e-commerce, patents can be relevant for businesses that develop innovative technologies or software solutions. For instance, a company that creates a unique algorithm for personalised product recommendations may seek patent protection.
4. Domain Names:
   Domain names are a valuable asset for e-commerce businesses. Disputes over domain names, such as cybersquatting (registering a domain name in bad faith to profit from someone else’s trademark), are resolved through mechanisms like the Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP).

A notable case in this area is L’Oréal v. eBay (2011), where the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that online marketplaces like eBay could be held liable for trademark infringement if they fail to take action against counterfeit goods sold on their platforms.

Dispute Resolution in E-Commerce

Dispute resolution is a critical aspect of e-commerce law, ensuring that conflicts between buyers, sellers, and other stakeholders are resolved fairly and efficiently. As e-commerce transactions often occur across borders and involve digital platforms, traditional legal frameworks may not always be sufficient. E-commerce law provides specialised mechanisms and guidelines to address disputes in the digital marketplace, balancing the interests of consumers, businesses, and intermediaries.

This section explores the key components of dispute resolution in e-commerce, focusing on the legal frameworks, processes, and best practices that underpin this area of e-commerce law.

1. Legal Frameworks Governing Dispute Resolution in E-Commerce

E-commerce law encompasses various regulations and directives that establish the rules for resolving disputes in online transactions. These frameworks ensure that consumers and businesses have access to fair and transparent processes.

a. Consumer Protection Laws

• Consumer Rights Act 2015 (UK):
  This legislation provides consumers with the right to return faulty goods, receive refunds, and cancel contracts within a cooling-off period. It also mandates that businesses provide clear information about their products and services.
• Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation, and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013:
  These regulations require businesses to provide detailed pre-contractual information and allow consumers to cancel distance contracts within 14 days.

b. E-Commerce Regulations

• Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002:
  These regulations require online businesses to provide clear information about their identity, terms and conditions, and dispute resolution procedures. They also mandate that businesses acknowledge receipt of orders and provide accessible contact details.

c. Cross-Border Dispute Resolution

• EU Regulation on Online Dispute Resolution (ODR):
  This regulation establishes a platform for resolving cross-border e-commerce disputes within the European Union. It applies to disputes between consumers and traders arising from online sales or service contracts.
• United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Model Law on Electronic Commerce:
  This framework provides guidelines for resolving disputes in international e-commerce transactions, promoting harmonisation across jurisdictions.

2. Types of Disputes in E-Commerce

Disputes in e-commerce can arise from various issues, including:

• Product Quality: Consumers may receive defective or substandard products.
• Delivery Issues: Delays, non-delivery, or incorrect delivery of goods.
• Payment Disputes: Unauthorised transactions, overcharging, or payment processing errors.
• Misrepresentation: False or misleading product descriptions or advertising.
• Data Privacy: Breaches of personal data or misuse of consumer information.

E-commerce law provides mechanisms to address these disputes, ensuring that both consumers and businesses have access to fair and efficient resolution processes.

3. Dispute Resolution Mechanisms in E-Commerce

E-commerce law promotes the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms, which are often faster, cheaper, and more accessible than traditional litigation. Key mechanisms include:

a. Mediation

Mediation involves a neutral third party who facilitates negotiations between the disputing parties to reach a mutually acceptable solution. It is a flexible and collaborative process that preserves business relationships.

• Example: A consumer who receives a damaged product may mediate with the seller to agree on a replacement or refund.

b. Arbitration

Arbitration is a more formal process where a neutral arbitrator hears evidence and makes a binding decision. It is often used for higher-value disputes or cross-border transactions.

• Example: An e-commerce platform may include an arbitration clause in its terms and conditions, requiring disputes to be resolved through arbitration rather than litigation.

c. Online Dispute Resolution (ODR)

ODR platforms use digital tools to resolve disputes online, making the process more accessible and efficient. The EU ODR Platform is a prominent example, allowing consumers and traders to resolve cross-border disputes within the EU.

• Example: A consumer in France who purchases a product from a German online retailer can use the EU ODR Platform to file a complaint and seek resolution.

d. Chargebacks

Chargebacks allow consumers to dispute a transaction with their payment provider (e.g., credit card company) and request a refund. While chargebacks protect consumers, they can be costly for businesses.

• Example: A consumer who does not receive their order may initiate a chargeback to recover their payment.

4. Role of E-Commerce Platforms in Dispute Resolution

E-commerce platforms, such as Amazon, eBay, and Etsy, play a significant role in resolving disputes between buyers and sellers. These platforms often have their own dispute resolution mechanisms, which are governed by e-commerce law.

a. Internal Resolution Processes

• Amazon A-to-Z Guarantee: This programme protects consumers by offering refunds for items that are not delivered or are significantly different from their description.
• eBay Money Back Guarantee: eBay provides refunds for items that are not as described or fail to arrive.

b. Transparency and Fairness

E-commerce platforms must ensure that their dispute resolution processes are transparent, fair, and compliant with e-commerce law. This includes providing clear information about the process, timelines, and outcomes.

5. Challenges in E-Commerce Dispute Resolution

Despite the availability of dispute resolution mechanisms, several challenges persist in e-commerce law:

a. Cross-Border Complexity

Disputes involving parties in different jurisdictions can be complicated due to varying legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms.

b. Enforcement of Decisions

Ensuring that dispute resolution decisions are enforced, particularly in cross-border cases, can be difficult.

c. Consumer Awareness

Many consumers are unaware of their rights or the dispute resolution options available to them, highlighting the need for better education and outreach.

6. Best Practices for Businesses

To navigate dispute resolution effectively, e-commerce businesses should:

• Provide Clear Information:
  Clearly communicate terms and conditions, return policies, and dispute resolution procedures.
• Implement Robust Customer Service:
  Offer prompt and effective support to resolve issues before they escalate.
• Use Technology:
  Leverage tools like chatbots and automated systems to streamline dispute resolution processes.
• Comply with Legal Requirements:
  Ensure that dispute resolution mechanisms comply with e-commerce law and consumer protection regulations.

The Role of Cybersecurity in E-Commerce Law

Cybersecurity is now a cornerstone of e-commerce law. With the increasing frequency and sophistication of cyberattacks, protecting sensitive customer data and ensuring secure transactions are paramount for online businesses. Cybersecurity regulations and best practices are designed to safeguard both businesses and consumers from data breaches, fraud, and other cyber threats.

1. Legal Frameworks for Cybersecurity:
   In the UK, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the Data Protection Act 2018 set stringent requirements for data security. Businesses must implement appropriate technical and organisational measures to protect personal data from unauthorised access, disclosure, or destruction. For example, encryption and multi-factor authentication are commonly used to secure online transactions.
2. Incident Response and Reporting:
   Under GDPR, businesses are required to report data breaches to the relevant supervisory authority within 72 hours of becoming aware of the breach. Failure to do so can result in significant fines. Additionally, businesses must notify affected individuals if the breach poses a high risk to their rights and freedoms.
3. Payment Security:
   E-commerce businesses must comply with the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), which sets requirements for handling and storing payment card information. Non-compliance can lead to fines, increased transaction fees, and even the loss of the ability to process card payments.

The Role of Environmental and Sustainability Regulations in E-Commerce

As global awareness of environmental issues grows, e-commerce businesses are increasingly being held accountable for their environmental impact. Governments and consumers alike are demanding more sustainable practices, leading to the introduction of new regulations and standards.

1. Packaging Waste:
   One of the most significant environmental challenges in e-commerce is packaging waste. The UK Plastic Packaging Tax, introduced in April 2022, imposes a tax of £200 per tonne on plastic packaging with less than 30% recycled content. This regulation encourages businesses to adopt more sustainable packaging solutions.
2. Carbon Footprint:
   E-commerce businesses are also under pressure to reduce their carbon footprint. The UK’s Net Zero Strategy aims to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, and businesses are expected to contribute to this goal. Many companies are now offering carbon-neutral shipping options and investing in renewable energy.
3. Product Lifecycle:
   Regulations are increasingly focusing on the entire lifecycle of products, from production to disposal. The EU’s Circular Economy Action Plan promotes the reuse, repair, and recycling of products, reducing waste and conserving resources. E-commerce businesses must consider these principles when designing and selling products.

An example of a company leading the way in sustainability is Patagonia, which offers a repair and recycling programme for its products and uses recycled materials in its packaging. Such initiatives not only comply with regulations but also enhance brand reputation and customer loyalty.

The Role of Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce) in E-Commerce Law

The rise of smartphones has led to the growth of mobile commerce (m-commerce), where consumers use mobile devices to make purchases. This trend presents unique legal considerations for e-commerce businesses.

• Mobile Payment Security:
  Mobile payments must comply with the same security standards as traditional online payments, such as PCI DSS. Additionally, businesses must ensure that their mobile apps are secure and free from vulnerabilities that could be exploited by hackers.
• App Store Compliance:
  Mobile apps must comply with the terms and conditions of app stores, such as the Apple App Store and Google Play Store. These platforms have strict guidelines on data privacy, advertising, and in-app purchases.
• User Experience:
  Mobile commerce often involves smaller screens and different user interfaces compared to desktop e-commerce. Businesses must ensure that their mobile platforms are user-friendly and accessible, complying with regulations such as the Equality Act 2010 in the UK, which requires digital services to be accessible to people with disabilities.

The Role of Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies in E-Commerce

Blockchain technology and cryptocurrencies are increasingly being integrated into e-commerce, offering new opportunities and challenges.

• Smart Contracts:
  Blockchain enables the use of smart contracts, which are self-executing contracts with the terms directly written into code. These contracts can automate transactions and reduce theneed for intermediaries. However, their legal status and enforceability are still being explored.
• Cryptocurrency Payments:
  Some e-commerce businesses now accept cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin as payment. While this can attract tech-savvy customers, it also raises issues related to volatility, regulation, and tax compliance. For example, the UK’s HM Revenue and Customs (HMRC) has issued guidelines on the tax treatment of cryptocurrencies.
• Fraud Prevention:
• Blockchain’s transparency and immutability make it a powerful tool for preventing fraud in e-commerce. For example, blockchain can be used to verify the authenticity of products and track their supply chain.

An example of blockchain in e-commerce is Walmart’s use of blockchain to track food products, ensuring transparency and safety in its supply chain. This innovation not only enhances consumer trust but also complies with food safety regulations.

The Role of Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) in E-Commerce

AR and VR technologies are transforming the e-commerce experience by allowing consumers to visualise products in a more immersive way.

• Virtual Try-Ons:
  AR enables customers to virtually try on clothes, accessories, and even makeup before making a purchase. This reduces the likelihood of returns and enhances customer satisfaction. However, businesses must ensure that their AR applications are accurate and do not mislead consumers.
• Virtual Showrooms:
  VR can create virtual showrooms where customers can explore products in a 3D environment. This is particularly useful for high-value items like furniture and cars. Businesses must ensure that these virtual experiences are accessible and comply with consumer protection laws.
• Data Privacy:
  AR and VR applications often collect large amounts of data, including biometric data. Businesses must comply with data protection regulations, such as GDPR, and ensure that consumers are aware of how their data is being used.

An example of AR in e-commerce is IKEA’s Place app, which allows customers to visualise how furniture will look in their homes. This innovative use of technology has set a new standard for online shopping experiences.

The Role of Voice Commerce in E-Commerce

Voice commerce, or v-commerce, involves using voice-activated devices like smart speakers to make purchases. This emerging trend presents unique legal and practical considerations.

1. Consumer Consent:
   Voice-activated devices must obtain clear consent from users before making purchases. Businesses must ensure that their voice commerce platforms are transparent and easy to use.
2. Data Security:
   Voice commerce involves the collection and processing of voice data, which is considered biometric data under GDPR. Businesses must implement robust security measures to protect this sensitive information.
3. Accessibility:
   Voice commerce can enhance accessibility for people with disabilities, but businesses must ensure that their platforms are inclusive and comply with accessibility regulations.

An example of voice commerce is Amazon’s Alexa, which allows users to order products using voice commands. This convenience has made Alexa a popular choice for consumers, but it also highlights the importance of data security and consumer consent.

The Legal Battlefield

E-commerce law is a dynamic and multifaceted field that continues to evolve in response to technological advancements and changing consumer expectations. From cybersecurity and data privacy to sustainability and emerging technologies like AI, blockchain, and AR, businesses must navigate a complex legal landscape to ensure compliance and build trust with consumers.

By staying informed about legal developments, implementing robust policies, and leveraging technology, e-commerce businesses can mitigate risks and seize opportunities in the digital economy. As the global e-commerce market continues to grow, businesses that prioritise legal compliance and ethical practices will be well-positioned for long-term success.

Ultimately, e-commerce law is not just about avoiding legal pitfalls—it is about creating a fair, transparent, and secure environment for businesses and consumers alike. By embracing these principles, e-commerce businesses can thrive in an increasingly competitive and interconnected world. Whether you are a small online retailer or a global e-commerce platform, investing in legal compliance is not just a regulatory requirement—it is a strategic advantage.

Useful Links

That said; E–commerce law is about much more than the 2002 Regulations. The English law of contract governs online as well as offline contracting. The key tenets of contract law are to be found in the long history of judgements and decisions by the courts, supplemented by legislation such as the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999.

• E-commerce and the Law – An introductory guide to the subject from Business Link.
• The Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 – These are the UK implementing Regulations for the Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular electronic commerce, in the Internal Market.
• Guide to the E-commerce Regulations – This Dti guide is designed to help businesses deal with the impact of the Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002 (opens a PDF File).
• The Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 2000 – These are the UK implementing Regulations for Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 May 1997 on the protection of consumers in respect of distance contracts.
• The Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999.
• The Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002.
• Out-law’s e-commerce pages – Focusing on online transactions.

Glossary: Advertising, Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), Amazon A-to-Z Guarantee, Augmented Reality (AR), Blockchain, Business to Business (B2B), Business to Consumer (B2C), Chargeback, Circular Economy Action Plan, Competition and Markets Authority (CMA), Consumer Contracts Regulations 2013, Consumer Protection, Consumer Rights Act 2015, Contract Law, Cooling-Off Period, Copyright, Cross-Border Transactions, Cryptocurrency, Cybersecurity, Cybersquatting, Digital Marketing, E-commerce, E-commerce Law, Electronic Commerce Regulations 2002, Electronic Point of Sales, General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), IKEA Place App, Information Society Services, Intellectual Property (IP), Internet Marketing, Liability of Intermediaries, Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce), Marketing, Money Claim Online (MCOL), Net Zero Strategy, Online Dispute Resolution (ODR), Patent, Product Lifecycle, Small Claims Court, Starbucks Mobile App, Sustainability Regulations, Trademark, Transparency Requirements, UK Plastic Packaging Tax, Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP), Virtual Reality (VR), Voice Commerce (V-Commerce), Walmart Blockchain, Website